The Impact of Climate Change on the Future of Food Safety:
A look at how climate change is increasing the risk of foodborne diseases
By: Diane Dominique Ting
For centuries, climate change has been typically brought about by changes in the sun's energy or volcanic eruptions that affect the Earth's climate. Recent climate changes, however, are more noticeable and not due to natural causes. Instead, they are brought on by the release of greenhouse gases, primarily methane and carbon dioxide. According to the United Nations (UN): "Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas), which produces heat-trapping gases." While most emissions come from burning fossil fuels, industrial activities, agricultural practices, and forest loss also contribute to heat-trapping gases. These greenhouse gases then trap the infrared radiation the Earth emits as heat, causing global warming.
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992, "Change of climate (global temperatures, precipitations, wind patterns, and other measures of climate) is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods."
Fortunately, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) addressed climate change issues and coordinated international efforts. The Earth Summit pledged to reduce natural resource risks and promote reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In 2015, all Paris Agreement countries were also required to present climate action plans at the conference. In the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, nations made stronger and more comprehensive climate change promises reaffirming the Green Climate Fund and renewable energy pledges.
Despite such efforts, climate change still highly affects global development and natural systems. High temperatures, water scarcity, unpredictable precipitation, and harsh weather can all harm agricultural output. Soon enough, climate change could also exacerbate food insecurity and malnutrition.
INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN FOOD SECURITY AND FOOD SAFETY
"Food security" was defined at the 1996 UN World Food Summit as "access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food", making food safety crucial for food security. Food security has often been conceived merely in terms of having sufficient food. The challenge of food security, however, is assuring the food is safe from a chemical, physical, or biological hazard.
The Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) "The Future of Food Safety", explains how climate change will affect food safety, but how it also affects food security. Recurrent droughts, excessive rainfall, sea level rise and other climate-change-induced situations that affect fresh water availability all have major impacts on agriculture. As a leading source of chemical contaminants, aflatoxins can better explain the interplay of food security, food safety, and climate change. Aflatoxins are invisible toxins that contaminate many staple food and cash crops that are caused by stress factors such as drought and attacks from pests. Post-harvest contamination spikes further with poor drying, storage, and handling. Virtually indestructible, aflatoxins can cause cancer, stunted growth, and nutritional deficits in animals and humans, therefore affecting food security of many staple foods.
Several studies predict that climate change would diminish the micronutrient content of basic foods by year 2050, adding 125.8 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) worldwide which will increase infections, diarrhea, and anemia. Climate change will also increase arsenic in rice plantations, endangering food security. Consequently, this might triple heavy metal levels in rice by year 2100 and cut productivity by 39%.
Furthermore, unhealthy eating is costly and painful. Food security influences global commerce and economy as low- and middle-income countries lose USD 95 billion yearly to foodborne sickness. Contaminated imports put importing countries at risk for foodborne illnesses. To prevent microbiological and chemical food contamination, compliance to global standards must be a priority.
To address these food safety implications, the UN hosted two high-level food safety events in 2019: the International Forum on Food Safety and Trade and the First FAO/WHO/AU International Food Safety Conference. Both conferences focused on food safety strategies and approaches that help accomplish Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), trade-related food safety issues and challenges, and how to make food more plentiful and secure amid climate change. It was concluded that food safety concerns must be considered in the international effort to end hunger and food poverty, a goal reaffirmed in many UN resolutions and protocols. Consequently, environmental protection must be integrated with social and economic growth to achieve SDG 2 (zero hunger), 3 (excellent health and well-being), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 12 (responsible consumption and production), and 13 must consider food safety (climate action).
IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE TO FOOD SAFETY
Climate change affects food safety in multiple ways. For example, changes in the length of summer affect several foodborne diseases and the severity of its symptoms. Climate change could mess up the way outbreaks happen at certain times of the year. There was a link between the average temperature going up and the increasing number of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis cases. The temperature also affects how often pathogen-carrying insects like cockroaches and flies come into contact with food. When there is plenty of rain, the chance of getting food and waterborne diseases spread by water such as diarrhea, typhoid fever, and cholera goes up.
How just one facet of climate change can make it riskier to eat certain foods is clarified in detail in Figure 1. Temperature increases can have repercussions on food production all around the world with a rise in the number of diseases caused by microorganisms that are spread by food and water. In addition, increases in temperature add to the amount of hazardous heavy metals that are absorbed by staple crops. It also spreads toxic algal blooms, compromising the safety of seafood. Plant diseases and insects are bound to spread into new areas due to increasing temperature, which could result in an increased use for pesticides. Consequently, this will increase the likelihood of plant infection in areas where they were not previously present. Climate change can further cause damage to food safety in these ways:
Foodborne Pathogens and Parasites
Temperature, precipitation, and other environmental conditions affect infections and parasites in food. For example, rising temperatures increase the risk of illnesses due to Salmonella and Campylobacter. Vibrio vulnificus also causes diseases, sometimes death, from raw or undercooked seafood as warming waters and rising sea levels help spread this bacterium. In addition, frequent and strong hurricanes flood croplands which could spread infections. In places with inadequate hygiene and sanitation, flooding raises the danger of waterborne infections like cholera which is produced by Vibrio cholerae. Changing rainfall patterns and high temperatures in temperate zones can encourage foodborne parasites, which are more abundant in the tropics. All these pose food safety hazards, especially for raw vegetables. Moreover, prolonged droughts affect water availability and consumption. This can influence food processing companies and households by limiting water use for cleaning and sanitation, compromi-sing food safety.
Algal Blooms
Algae are an aquatic environment staple. Algal blooms occur in freshwater and marine habitats when algae grow out of control due to environmental and anthropogenic factors. Such blooms obscure sunlight from maritime plants and animals. Unfortunately, certain algal species are toxic to fish, shellfish, marine animals, and birds. These algal toxins bioaccumulate in fish and shellfish and can cause toxicity when eaten. For example, ciguatera poisoning is a serious foodborne issue in the Pacific region. These hazardous algal blooms also impair water quality, coastal resources, fisheries, and tourism, causing huge economic losses. Moreover, an excessive abundance of nitrogen and phosphorus-rich fertilizer, severe precipitation, warmer oceans, ocean acidification, and overfishing have all contributed to increased frequency and duration of toxic algal blooms along coastlines and in lakes globally. Climate change can also allow dangerous algal blooms to spread to new locations, most of which are unprepared for identification and surveillance, endangering public health.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals enter the body through ingestion, and biomagnification of some metals can occur if certain foods, like seafood, are consistently consumed. For example, climate change in rainfall intensity is projected to have an impact on the transport of heavy metals as high carbon dioxide concentrations can increase the bioaccumulation of titanium dioxide in edible bivalve mollusks, which could be dangerous for consumers. Furthermore, methylmercury in fish is a public health problem because it harms the nervous, immunological, and digestive systems of humans. It is a threat to a child's growth in utero and early life. In our aquatic systems, inorganic mercury becomes methylated due to climate change-related environmental conditions.
Moreover, cadmium, lead, mercury, and metalloids like arsenic can be naturally found in soil, air, and water. Heavy rain on land, especially in mining areas, can discharge hazardous metals, affecting food and water quality. Increasing soil temperatures also cause plants to absorb hazardous elements, such as arsenic in rice. Rice, a staple food in many low and middle-income nations, accumulates arsenic in both the plant and the grain.
Mycotoxins
Dietary exposure to mycotoxins can arise through the consumption of contaminated food or products from animals fed with contaminated feed. Temperature, humidity, and pest damage to crops affect fungal development and mycotoxin production. As cooler temperate zones warm and become more suited to agriculture, they open up new harborage for agricultural pests and toxic fungal species. Aflatoxins, once an issue in tropical places like Africa, are now widespread in other locations. Migration of mycotoxins into areas without surveillance and outbreak control makes it difficult to curb economic and public health damage. Moreover, inadequate storage and transportation facilities, especially in climate change conditions, and longer food chains increase the danger of mycotoxin development and transmission. Fortunately, FAO and the WHO worked together to create the International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management, a voluntary framework intended to be utilized within national legislation, in order to assist member nations in resolving some of these concerns.
Pests and Pesticides
While there is no conclusive scientific evidence that directly links increased pesticide use and climate change, rising carbon dioxide levels can raise plants' sugar content, which can increase insect infestation leading to increased pesticide use and human exposure to pesticide residues. Efforts to modify current modes of pesticide application are being explored, but so far most of t`hese efforts have been limited to laboratory settings.
Moreover, climate change is spreading crop pests. Plants get fungal spores from feeding insects and pest-damaged plants are more susceptible to fungus. Controlling pests reduces crop fungus which means reduced pest damage that also lowers fumonisin levels in genetically-modified maize in the United States.
Increase of Animal Diseases
Climate change influences illness incidence, dissemination, and prediction in animal-based livelihoods as well. For example, epidemic animal diseases hinder the cattle sector's climate change adaptability. Heat stress may affect livestock health by causing metabolic disruptions, oxidative stress, and immune suppression causing infections and death.
To reduce the effect of climate change on animal health, FAO has been working to improve prevention, preparedness, early detection and response to animal health threats and emergencies triggered by climate change. Key tools and mechanisms include the Emergency Prevention System, which maps and tracks disease outbreaks and develops regional risk management strategies, and the Emergency Management Centre for Animal Health, which provides response support to control high impact disease events. FAO prioritizes strengthening global and national platforms, policies, infrastructures, and technologies to prevent and respond to climate-related animal health catastrophes. Promoting One Health by including animal health packages in FAO and partners' climate change activities and other aspects of the livestock sector encourage animal health solutions that address climate change effect reduction, mitigation, and adaptation.
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE TO FOOD SAFETY
Climate change can indirectly affect food safety through human behavior with instances of poor food storage practices, cross-contamination, and undercooked meat. This is especially the case when food is left out without proper refrigeration for too long or bacteria from raw meat is spread to ready to eat meals during barbecues and picnics.
Longer summers and changing rainfall patterns can also cause a global water crisis. Water scarcity can affect the transmission of foodborne pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes by compromising hygienic practices such as food handlers' hand hygiene and machine sanitization in food processing plants. Moreover, water stress affects agriculture. Without enough municipal water, farmers may irrigate using surface water that may contain pathogenic microorganisms. Furthermore, the frequency of tsunamis is predicted to increase with sea level rise. Tsunamis may disperse marine pathogenic microorganisms, such as Cryptococcus gatti from the Pacific Northwest, onto land.
In addition, increasing ambient temperatures coupled with elevated storage temperatures will increase human exposure to unsafe food for consumption. For example, health department staff in New York City noted a consistent increase in gastroenteritis in the days following a prolonged blackout in August 2003. Investigation indicated that the increase in gastroenteritis was probably attributable to the consumption of spoiled meat during power failures that often happen during the summer due to overloaded electric lines.
ADDRESSING FOOD SAFETY IMPLICATIONS FROM CLIMATE CHANGE
Several actions can be performed to address the food safety concerns brought on by climate change. A few solutions to the effects of climate change on food safety are listed below:
Raising awaness through targeted communication
By using targeted communication, the issue may be brought to the public's attention. An atmosphere can be created in which practical solutions to control and prevent hazards to food safety can be developed. For instance, the public is more likely to support the creation of effective rules to regulate aflatoxins if there is a high level of public awareness about them. Information campaigns and initiatives should convey messages targeted to an audience since audience segmentation provides the benefit of delivering messages intended to inspire action by certain groups.
Engaging all stakeholders
From analyzing food safety risks and harnessing knowledge to choosing the best risk management methods, collaboration among all stakeholders is essential. Local cases of foodborne illness can quickly escalate into global crises, demanding both transnational and transdisciplinary coordination. Moreover, a "One Health" strategy, or holistic, integrated cross-sectoral approach to food safety, is the best way to promote a synergistic mentality, especially in light of climate change. In addition, national laboratories must confirm that our food safety processes are functioning properly, and the academia must produce knowledge and experts in food safety in order to manage the risks of food contamination under climate change. Lastly, non-governmental organizations should participate in this engagement as well.
Promoting more monitoring and data exchange
To create acceptable food safety standards, rigorous risk assessments are required. These standards must be routinely amended to reflect changing scientific knowledge and data gathered from monitoring and surveillance. It is necessary to gather pertinent surveillance information on human diseases and various stages of the food supply chain for analysis to spot trends. The forecast of foodborne disease outbreaks and ensuring prevention will both benefit greatly from data integration. The challenge, however, is that new technologies for outbreak surveillance can be difficult to get and put into use because of the differences in these necessities between developing and developed nations.
Enhancing food safety management systems
Each country manages its food safety systems differently. Due to the various capacities, infrastructure, and validation techniques required to handle the complexity of supply chains, effectively harmonized management at a global level is challenging. Adopting best guidelines and putting in place efficient food safety procedures are essential for guaranteeing the security of both domestic food supply and export ready goods. Adoption and enforcement of food safety standards as well as harmonization of regulatory frameworks for food that is intended for domestic and international trade are crucial components of this endeavor. Moreover, investing in early warning systems, a crucial component of the risk-reduction strategy, is important because regular food safety monitoring systems may miss the presence of newly emerging food dangers.
Adopting a forward-looking mindset
Foresight aids in anticipating future difficulties and sustained resilience by regularly upgrading readiness. It is a methodical strategy to acquire and analyze intelligence, on which proactive tactics are later developed to pinpoint potential problems and lessen their effects. Traditional surveillance and monitoring methods should not be replaced; rather, foresight should be implemented to enhance them and provide a comprehensive understanding of possible problems that might demand risk management actions.
Moreover, the global understanding of how climate change affects food safety still has several gaps. More research on these impacts and the exposure concerns they present, both separately and in conjunction with other dangers, is needed to better understand them.
To conclude all the climatic change implications on food safety, it is important to understand that prioritizing risks is difficult due to the complexity of food systems, the diversity of foodborne hazards, and the simultaneous influence of changing climatic factors. Prioritization of food safety risks is a systematic analysis that is typically done by national food safety authorities. It involves ranking different foodborne hazards; according to how likely or severely they will cause a negative impact on the domestic population's health. Such systems allow resources to be deployed effectively to minimize risks of foodborne illnesses. Investments can be directed to priority areas using risk ranking as a tool. This is crucial in nations with scarce human and financial resources because it can be challenging for national authorities to effectively address all threats to food safety.
Finally, the role of consumers is crucial when discussing the effects of climate change on food safety. In fact, national and regional authorities will need to take their influence into account as they take into consideration how food systems are changing. Consumer preferences and eating habits are evolving as a result of urbanization, globalization, financial constraints or gains, rising interest in sustainable food production, and other factors. Government agencies must be aware of emerging threats to food safety that alter manufacturing processes and understand how to seize the initiative to promote change. Government agencies, the agri-food sector, consumer associations, media outlets, educators, and the scientific community as a whole all share the responsibility for empowering consumers to make healthy decisions within the context of sustainable food systems.